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While conventional pulmonary function testing remains the cornerstone of diagnosing airflow limitation, its sensitivity for early detection of SAD is insufficient ( Physiological characteristics of the small airway Small airways are defined as those with a diameter of less than 2 mm and are considered part of the distal airway system, comprising membranous bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, and alveolar ducts ( Initiation phase Epithelial damageEMT (epithelial-mesenchymal transition)impaired barrier functionmucus obstruction The small airway epithelium is the main defense barrier of the respiratory tract against inhaled harmful particles and pathogens

Hand kretek cigarettes are conical in shape and are without any filters or filters inside

Male smokers are as likely to develop lung cancer as female smokers

But that average rise (8.2 nanograms per milliliter, or ng/ml) was far lower than in the 10 smokers who each puffed normally on a single cigarette (about 21 ng/ml)

Smoking was woven into the fabric of daily life for most people who smoked: the morning cigarette with coffee, the smoke break at work, the cigarette after dinner or while driving