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(4) Furthermore, the oxidative stress imbalance, caused by excessive ROS production, impairs the antioxidant defense system by directly damaging antioxidant enzymes (such as SOD and GPx) and depleting key antioxidant molecules like glutathione, leading to fragmentation of hyaluronic acid in the extracellular matrix and abnormal collagen cross-linking, thereby reducing the mechanical properties of cartilage (6, 22, 23)

Follow-up studies demonstrated that the insulin response resulting from carbohydrate feeding can be sufficient to increase the uptake of carnitine into the muscle (2)

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ER Stress and Unfolded Protein Response Accumulation of unfolded and misfolded proteins or excessive protein trafficking in the lumen of the ER causes ER stress, which triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR)

Mitochondria-targeted antioxidant MitoQ10 improves endothelial function and attenuates cardiac hypertrophy